Cervical Cancer: Symptoms, Causes, Treatments, and Natural Approaches

By Mercura Wang

Cervical cancer originates in the cells of the cervix, the lower part of the uterus (womb), where abnormal cells grow uncontrollably and form a tumor.

It is the eighth most common cancer globally and the fourth most prevalent cancer among women. In the United States, the age-standardized rate of cervical cancer is 6.3 per 100,000 women. The American Cancer Society estimates that in 2024, there will be approximately 13,820 new cases of invasive cervical cancer diagnosed, and about 4,360 American women will die from the disease.

What Are the Different Types of Cervical Cancer? 

The cervix connects the vagina to the uterus through a canal called the endocervical canal. It has two parts: the ectocervix (the outer surface) and the endocervix (the inner canal). The squamocolumnar junction, or transformation zone, is where the endocervix and ectocervix meet. This is the area where most cervical cancers begin—the location of the transformation zone changes depending on age and after giving birth.

There are two main types of cervical cancer:

1. Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC): Squamous cells are flat, skin-like cells that cover the ectocervix. Between 80 and 90 percent of cervical cancers are of this type. SCCs can be keratinizing, meaning the cells form nests (masses) containing keratin (a tough and fibrous protein) or non-keratinizing, meaning the cells form nests without keratin.
2. Adenocarcinoma: Adenocarcinoma starts in the glandular cells that produce mucus in the endocervix. Although less common than SCC, its incidence has risen, accounting for 10 to 20 percent of cervical cancers. Mucinous adenocarcinoma is the most common form of adenocarcinoma, and endometrioid adenocarcinoma resembles cancer found in the uterine lining. At the same time, clear cell carcinoma may occur in daughters of women who took diethylstilbestrol (DES) during pregnancy.

The two main cervical cancers receive similar treatments.

Two rare types of cervical cancer are:

1. Adenosquamous carcinoma: Adenosquamous carcinoma contains both squamous and glandular cancer cells and accounts for 3 to 10 percent of cervical cancers. It is a combination of SCC and adenocarcinoma, and its treatments are very similar to those of the first two.
2. Small cell cancer of the cervix: Small cell cervical cancer is a fast-growing neuroendocrine cancer, accounting for approximately 2 percent of cervical cancers. It often spreads quickly to lymph nodes and other areas and requires different treatment approaches than the above three cervical cancers.

In very rare cases, other types of cancer, such as lymphomas and sarcomas, can occur in the cervix. They are treated differently from cervical cancer.

What Are the Symptoms and Early Signs of Cervical Cancer?

Early Signs

Early cervical cancers and precancerous cell changes are typically asymptomatic. Symptoms usually develop when the tumor begins to invade surrounding tissues and organs.

Common Symptoms

Cervical cancer may not always present symptoms, thus making regular cervical screenings essential. Its most common symptoms are:

• Unusual bleeding: Vaginal bleeding outside of the menstrual cycle is the most frequent symptom of cervical cancer. It can occur between periods, during or after sex, or even after menopause.
• Dyspareunia: Discomfort or pain during sex.
• Increased or abnormal vaginal discharge: Watery vaginal discharge with a strong odor or containing blood. This symptom is caused mainly by larger cancers (stage 3 or beyond).
• Pelvic or lower back pain: Possibly radiating down one or both legs
• Prolonged or unusually heavy periods
• Bleeding after a pelvic exam or vaginal douching
• Leakage of urine or feces from the vagina: This can occur when a fistula (an abnormal connection or passageway that develops between two organs) forms between the vagina and the bladder or rectum.
• Increased urinary frequency

Advanced Stage Symptoms

Advanced cervical cancer, which has spread beyond the cervix, may include the above symptoms along with the following:

• Difficulty or pain during bowel movements
• Constipation
• Rectal bleeding during bowel movements
• Painful urination or blood in the urine
• Loss of bladder control
• Dull backache
• Single leg swelling: Usually caused by venous or lymphatic obstruction.
• Abdominal pain
• Persistent fatigue
• Difficulty urinating
• Kidney failure: A blocked urinary tract may cause kidney failure.
• Bone pain or fractures
• Reduced appetite
• Unintentional weight loss
• Shortness of breath
• Coughing up blood
• Pain in the chest or bones

What Are the Main Causes of Cervical Cancer?

Cervical cancer typically develops slowly, beginning as precancerous conditions. The most common ways to classify these precancerous conditions include squamous intraepithelial lesion (SIL), cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), and cervical dysplasia. Dysplasia can be detected by a Pap test and is nearly 100 percent treatable. A Pap test can also detect SIL. However, the test cannot tell whether one has CIN or not. The progression from precancerous conditions to cervical cancer can take several years.

The main causes of cervical cancer include:

Human Papillomavirus

The human papillomavirus (HPV) causes almost all types of cervical cancer. HPV is the most prevalent sexually transmitted infection (STI) in the United States, with approximately 43 million infections annually. About 80 percent of sexually active individuals will be exposed to an HPV infection at least once in their lifetime. HPV is spread through skin-to-skin contact, including sexual intercourse, hand-to-genital contact, and oral sex. There’s no way to know who will get cervical cancer after being exposed.

HPV produces proteins E6 and E7 that deactivate tumor suppressor genes such as p53 and Rb. Tumor suppressor genes normally help regulate cell growth and ensure cells die when they should. When these genes are deactivated, excessive growth and genetic changes in cervical cells occur, potentially leading to cancer.

There are more than 200 HPV types. While HPV is common and usually harmless, certain high-risk strains can lead to cancer. About 70 percent of cervical cancer cases are caused by HPV 16 and HPV 18. The immune system clears most HPV infections within 6 to 12 months, but persistent infections with high-risk types increase the risk of developing cervical cancer. HPV-related cervical disease in women under 25 often resolves on its own. However, women with infections from multiple HPV types may be less likely to clear the virus spontaneously and could be at higher risk of developing cancer.

Diethylstilbestrol (DES)

The medication diethylstilbestrol was given to pregnant women between 1940 and 1971 to prevent miscarriage but was later proven to be ineffective. Girls exposed to DES in the womb have a higher risk of developing certain cancers, including cervical cancer unrelated to HPV (clear cell carcinoma). The risk seems highest in women whose mothers took the drug during the first 16 weeks of pregnancy.

If left undiagnosed and untreated, cervical cancer can gradually spread from the cervix to surrounding tissues and organs, including the vagina, pelvic muscles, bladder, rectum, liver, bones, lungs, and also through the lymphatic system and bloodstream.

Who Is More Likely to Develop Cervical Cancer?

Any woman who has ever been sexually active is at risk of developing cervical cancer, as sexual activity can potentially expose her to HPV. Risk factors for developing cervical cancer include:

• Being aged 35 to 44: Cervical cancer is most commonly diagnosed in women aged 35 to 44, with the average age of diagnosis being 50. It is rare for women under 20 to develop cervical cancer.
• Lower income and less education: These women have a higher risk of cervical cancer, likely due to less regular cervical screenings and other risk factors such as higher smoking rates.
• Risky sexual practices: Risky sexual practices include having multiple sexual partners, unprotected sex, and one or more partners involved in high-risk sexual activities.
• Sexual activity at a young age: Becoming sexually active at a young age can raise the risk of cervical cancer because the cervix undergoes changes during puberty that make it more vulnerable to damage. Additionally, people who start sexual activity before the age of 18 are more likely to contract a high-risk type of HPV.
• Having male sexual partners who have had many partners
• Having female sexual partners with cervical cancer
• Having given multiple births: The risk increases with the number of births, but no specific number has been identified as the threshold for increased risk. Women with two children have double the risk of developing cervical cancer compared to women with no children. The exact reasons for this increased risk are not fully understood, but it might be related to hormonal changes during pregnancy or trauma to the cervix during childbirth. Research suggests that having a cesarean section does not appear to increase the risk of cervical cancer.
• Full-term pregnancy at a young age: Women who have their first full-term pregnancy before age 20 are more likely to develop cervical cancer later in life compared to those who have their first full-term pregnancy at age 25 or older.
• Smoking: Smoking tobacco increases the risk of cervical cancer, with higher risk per more cigarettes smoked daily. Women who smoke are approximately twice as likely to develop cervical cancer compared to those who do not smoke.
• Exposure to secondhand smoke
• Having a mother who took diethylstilbestrol during pregnancy
• A weakened immune system
• HIV or AIDS: Having the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or AIDS increases the risk that precancerous changes in cervical cells will progress to cervical cancer, although this risk may be reduced in women receiving treatment for HIV. In HIV-positive women, precancerous cells can progress to cervical cancer more quickly than in HIV-negative women.
• Having both HPV and chlamydia: Women who have both HPV and chlamydia may face a higher risk of cervical cancer.
• Multiple types of HPV infection: Those with infections from multiple HPV types may be less likely to clear the virus on their own and are, therefore, at a higher risk of progressing to cancer.
• HSV-2: Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) may be associated with an increased risk of cervical cancer in women who have HPV.
• Taking birth control pills: The contraceptive pill is linked to a slightly higher risk of cervical cancer, especially with use over five years. The risk decreases after stopping the pill and returns to normal after 10 years.
• A family history of cervical cancer: A woman’s risk of developing squamous cell carcinoma is higher if her mother, sister, or daughter has had cervical cancer.
• Obesity: Cervical cancer screening can be more challenging for obese individuals, which may result in fewer precancers being detected and a higher risk of developing cancer.
• A diet lacking fruits and vegetables
• Past cancers: Examples include vaginal, vulval, kidney, and bladder cancers.

How Is Cervical Cancer Diagnosed?

All women, beginning at age 21,  should have an annual well-woman check, which includes a pelvic exam to check for cervical cancer.

Physical Examination

During a physical exam, a doctor may perform a Pap test and pelvic exam, conduct a digital rectal exam to check for abnormal changes, and check the lymph nodes in the groin and above the collarbone for swelling.

Tests

Doctors commonly use the following tests to check for signs of cancer, precancerous changes, or increased risk of cervical cancer, as well as for cervical cancer staging:

• Pap test (Pap smear): A Pap test involves a doctor using a swab to collect cells from the cervix, which are then sent to a lab for analysis. This test detects abnormal or precancerous cells on the cervix. The Pap test is used for routine screening and is recommended every three years for women starting with consistently negative results and those at low risk for cervical cancer. Screening is recommended starting at age 21 or 25 (per the United States Preventive Services Task Force and the American Cancer Society, respectively) and discontinuing at age 65, depending on the recommending agency and the patient.
• HPV test: HPV testing begins at age 30 alongside the Pap smear every five years. An HPV test checks for the DNA of high-risk HPV types linked to cervical cancer. It can sometimes be done using the same cell sample collected during a Pap test.
• Colposcopy: A colposcopy is the preferred procedure doctors use to examine abnormal cell results or ongoing high-risk HPV infections. Similar to a Pap test, a colposcopy uses a lighted magnifying instrument called a colposcope to examine the vulva, vagina, and cervix. If any abnormal areas are found, a biopsy may be taken. A colposcopy can also be safely performed during pregnancy if needed.
• Biopsy: If a Pap test shows abnormal results, the doctor may need to perform a biopsy, where tissue or cells are removed from the cervix to be examined under a microscope. There are many types of biopsies:
  • Colposcopic biopsy: A colposcopic biopsy is performed during a colposcopy when the doctor uses biopsy forceps to remove small tissue samples from any suspicious areas in the cervix or vagina.
  • Endocervical curettage: In an endocervical curettage, which is also done during a colposcopy, the doctor uses a curette (a narrow spoon-shaped tool) to gently scrape cells and tissue from the endocervical canal.
  • Endometrial biopsy: An endometrial biopsy can be performed during a colposcopy. It involves using a pipelle tool to remove cells from the endometrium (lining of the uterus) for examination.
  • Cone biopsy: A cone biopsy removes a cone-shaped piece of tissue from the cervix, including the outer part near the vagina and part of the endocervical canal.
  • Sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB): A sentinel lymph node biopsy involves removing the sentinel lymph node, the first node in a chain that receives lymph fluid from the area around a tumor. This node is likely to be the first place cancer cells will spread. Depending on the lymph drainage route around the tumor, there may be multiple sentinel nodes.
  • LLETZ/LEEP: Large loop excision of the transformation zone (LLETZ), also known as loop electrosurgical excision (LEEP) or loop diathermy, is a procedure that involves using a thin wire loop with an electrical current to remove the transformation zone of the cervix. This method cuts the tissue and seals the wound simultaneously.
  • Cold knife cone biopsy: This procedure is performed in a hospital, using a surgical scalpel or laser to remove the tissue instead of a heated wire, as in LLETZ.
• Complete blood count (CBC): A complete blood count measures the quantity and quality of white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. It is often performed to check for anemia, particularly from chronic vaginal bleeding.
• Blood chemistry tests: Blood chemistry tests, or chemistry panels, measure the levels of specific chemicals in the blood. They assess kidney and liver function, which is important for diagnosing cervical cancer and determining if these organs are healthy enough to handle and recover from cancer treatments. The tests used for cervical cancer diagnosis may include:
  • Kidney function tests: also called a renal panel
  • Liver function tests
• Endoscopy: An endoscopy lets a doctor view inside body cavities using an endoscope, a flexible tube with a light and lens at the end.
  • Cystoscopy: A cystoscopy involves using a cystoscope (a type of endoscope) to examine the bladder and urethra.
  • Sigmoidoscopy: A sigmoidoscopy uses a sigmoidoscope (a type of endoscope) to examine the sigmoid colon (the final section of the colon) and the rectum.
• Imaging tests: Imaging tests such as a CT scan and MRI can examine the pelvis, abdomen, and lymph nodes around the cervix to determine if cancer has spread to other organs or tissues.
• Intravenous pyelogram: An intravenous pyelogram is an X-ray to check if cancer is blocking the ureters, which connect the kidneys to the bladder. It might not be necessary if a CT scan or MRI has already been performed.

Staging

If cervical cancer is diagnosed, its exact sizes and locations are assessed to determine its stage. Staging is determined by how far the cancer has spread.

• Stage I: The cancer is confined to the cervix.
• Stage II: The cancer remains within the pelvis, but it has spread beyond the uterus to the upper two-thirds of the vagina or tissues outside the uterus.
• Stage III: The cancer has spread throughout the pelvis and/or to the lower third of the vagina. It may block the ureters, affect kidney function, or spread to the lymph nodes near the aorta.
• Stage IV: The cancer has spread outside the pelvis and/or to the bladder, rectum, or distant organs.

What Are the Complications of Cervical Cancer?

The possible complications of cervical cancer include:

• Increased risk of cancer recurrence in women who undergo uterus-sparing treatments
• Potential issues with sexual, bowel, and bladder function following surgery or radiation therapy
• Pain: Cancer spreading to nerve endings, bones, or muscles can lead to intense pain.
• Kidney failure: In advanced cervical cancer, the tumor can block the ureters, causing a buildup of urine in the kidneys, known as hydronephrosis. Severe hydronephrosis can scar the kidneys, potentially leading to kidney failure.
• Blood clots: Similar to other types of cancer, cervical cancer can cause the blood to become “stickier” and more likely to form clots.
• Bleeding: When cervical cancer spreads to the vagina, bowel, or bladder, it can cause significant damage, leading to bleeding from the vagina, rectum, or during urination.
• Fistula: A fistula, occurring in about 2 percent of advanced cervical cancer cases, is an abnormal channel that forms between body parts. Typically, it develops between the bladder and vagina, leading to persistent vaginal discharge, and sometimes between the vagina and rectum.
• Death

What Are the Treatments for Cervical Cancer?

Based on age, stage of cancer, and general health, several treatment options may be available:

Stage I

1. Surgery: Surgery is the primary treatment for stage 1 cervical cancer. Different types of surgery are available:

• Cone biopsy: A cone biopsy may be recommended for women who wish to preserve their fertility. This procedure removes a cone-shaped section of tissue from the cervix for further examination. More treatment may be needed.
• Radical trachelectomy: A radical trachelectomy, often offered to women wishing to preserve fertility, involves removing the cervix, part of the vagina, surrounding tissues, and pelvic lymph nodes, with the womb reattached to the lower vagina. However, this procedure doesn’t guarantee the ability to have children, and any future births would require a cesarean section.
• Hysterectomy: A hysterectomy, which removes the uterus and cervix, is performed in two forms:
  • Simple hysterectomy: It removes the cervix, womb, and sometimes the ovaries and fallopian tubes.
  • Radical hysterectomy: It removes the cervix, womb, surrounding tissue, lymph nodes, ovaries, and fallopian tubes. It is the preferred option for advanced stage 1 and early stage 2 cervical cancers.
• Lymph node removal: During surgery, lymph nodes in the pelvis and the para-aortic lymph nodes in the back of the abdomen may be removed.

2. Radiation therapy: Radiation therapy uses high-energy beams to destroy cancer cells by damaging their DNA. It’s the primary treatment if surgery cannot be performed. It is also used post-surgery if cancer cells are found near the tissue edges, in blood or lymph vessels, or lymph nodes.

• External beam radiation therapy (EBRT): EBRT uses a linear accelerator positioned outside the patient’s body to generate and direct radiation beams at the tumor site.
• Internal radiation therapy (brachytherapy): Brachytherapy involves surgically placing a small amount of radioactive material, sealed in seeds, pellets, or wires, at or near the tumor site. It may be used after external radiation therapy.
• Intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT): IMRT is a form of 3D radiation therapy that uses a computer to map the tumor and directs radiation beams from multiple angles.

3. Chemoradiation: Chemoradiation combines chemotherapy with external radiation therapy, using cisplatin alone or with 5-fluorouracil. Chemotherapy can shrink and control cancer in nearly 50 percent of treated women, though the effect is usually temporary. Adding another medication may extend survival by a few months.

Stage II

1. Chemoradiation: Chemoradiation is a primary treatment for stage 2 cervical cancer.

2. Surgery:

• Radical trachelectomy: A radical hysterectomy may remove pelvic lymph nodes and sample lymph nodes in the back of the abdomen. Post-surgery radiation or chemoradiation may be administered.
• Lymph node dissection

3. Radiation therapy

Stage III

1. Chemoradiation: Chemoradiation is a primary treatment for stage 3 cervical cancer. Brachytherapy is typically performed alongside and following external radiation therapy.

2. Radiation therapy

Stage IV

1. Chemoradiation

2. Radiation therapy

3. Palliative chemotherapy: Chemotherapy may be used to alleviate pain and manage symptoms at the advanced stage of cervical cancer, which is called palliative chemotherapy. The drugs used, either alone or in combination, include cisplatin, carboplatin, paclitaxel, topotecan, gemcitabine, 5-fluorouracil, ifosfamide, docetaxel, irinotecan, mitomycin, vinorelbine, epirubicin, and doxorubicin.

4. Targeted drug therapy: Targeted drug therapy uses medications that target specific proteins on cervical cancer cells to inhibit their growth, spread, or survival, destroy cancer cells, or slow their growth. Examples of drugs used include bevacizumab, tisotumab vedotin, RET inhibitors, and NTRK inhibitors.

5. Immunotherapy: Immunotherapy uses the body’s immune system to target and destroy cancer cells, with three FDA-approved options currently available:

• Bevacizumab: A monoclonal antibody
• Tisotumab vedotin: An antibody-drug conjugate
• Pembrolizumab: A checkpoint inhibitor

Recurrent Cervical Cancer

• Chemoradiation
• Radiation therapy
• Chemotherapy
• Targeted therapy
• Immunotherapy
• Surgery:
  • Pelvic exenteration: A pelvic exenteration may treat recurrent cervical cancer confined to the pelvis but not if it has spread elsewhere. The procedure involves removing the cancer along with the bladder, rectum, vagina, and lower bowel and creating two stomas (holes) in the abdomen for urine and feces collection with colostomy bags (collection pouches).
  • Radical hysterectomy: A radical hysterectomy may be performed for a small recurrence in the cervix or uterus if the patient has previously undergone radiation therapy.

In terms of prognosis, when cervical cancer is diagnosed early, the 5-year relative survival rate is approximately 92 percent. However, if distant metastasis is present at diagnosis, the 5-year relative survival rate drops to 19 percent.

How Does Mindset Affect Cervical Cancer?

A positive mindset can impact cervical cancer in several ways:

• Prevention: A positive mindset may encourage proactive health behaviors, such as regular cervical screenings for early detection and prevention.
• Adherence to treatment: Patients with a hopeful and resilient mindset are often more likely to adhere to treatment regimens and follow medical advice for better treatment outcomes.
• Better mental health: A supportive mindset can help manage stress and emotional challenges related to a cervical cancer diagnosis, thus contributing to better mental health.
• Support systems: A positive mindset may foster stronger relationships with support systems, such as family and friends, who can provide emotional and practical support during treatment.

What Are the Natural Remedies for Cervical Cancer?

Before trying any of the following natural approaches, please consult your doctor.

1. Medicinal Herbs

• Ginger (Zingiber officinale): Ginger can help prevent cancer cell growth by blocking the production of prostaglandins involved in cervical cancer development. Its active compounds, called gingerols, can suppress or stop the rapid growth and multiplication of cervical cancer cells, stimulate their apoptosis, change their shape and structure to make them lose connections to other cancer cells, and even stop their cell cycle.
• Astragalus (Astragalus membranaceus): Astragalus possesses anti-cancer effects. Its phytochemical Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) can slow the growth of cervical cancer cells by reducing the levels of specific proteins (PLK1, CDC20, and CDK1) important for cancer cell growth. APS can also make cervical cancer cells more responsive to cisplatin by influencing autophagy, which helps the body remove damaged cells.
• Tripterygium wilfordii: The Chinese medicinal herb Tripterygium wilfordii contains an important compound called triptonide, which, even at very low concentrations, is highly effective at stopping the growth, spread, and survival of human cervical cancer cells. It causes these cancer cells to undergo apoptosis and prevents them from progressing through their normal cell cycle. Additionally, triptonide significantly reduces the ability of cervical cancer cells to metastasize and invade other areas in lab studies.

2. Diet

Researchers believe that regularly eating certain foods may help protect against cervical cancer and could also prevent the development of cervical dysplasia. These foods are:

• Fruits and vegetables: Fruits and vegetables are high in carotenoids, flavonoids, and folate, which can help the body combat HPV and prevent it from turning cervical cells into cancerous lesions. Cruciferous vegetables (such as cabbage and cauliflower) are particularly effective in helping to prevent cervical cancer.
• Antioxidant-rich foods: Examples include blueberries, tomatoes, squashes, and bell peppers. Blueberries can also boost the effectiveness of radiation therapy in treating cervical cancer.

3. Dietary Complements

If you have existing cervical changes, simply increasing your dietary intake might not be sufficient. Therefore, a supplement may be recommended.

• Curcumin: Many lab and animal studies have shown that curcumin, a natural compound found in turmeric, can be effective in treating cervical cancer. Curcumin works by helping to kill cancer cells, preventing them from growing and spreading, stopping the activity of HPV, and triggering a process that helps the body break down and remove cancer cells.
• Dietary antioxidants: Vitamins A and D may help prevent the early stages of cervical cancer, such as from HPV infection to cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN). Folate might help prevent the development of various CIN stages from HPV infection. Vitamins C and E may offer broader protection against cervical cancer, covering stages from HPV infection to CIN and even cervical cancer. However, nutrient intake alone is unlikely to prevent cervical cancer growth entirely.
• Selenium: Selenium, an essential trace element with antiviral and anti-cancer properties, has been effective against cervical cancer in cell and mouse studies. Selenium nanoparticles are especially promising, showing strong results even at low doses. They work well when combined with cancer drugs, targeted therapies, heat treatment, or advanced genetic techniques to improve their effectiveness in treating cervical cancer.

4. Hyperthermia Therapy

Hyperthermia is a natural treatment that involves heating localized areas of the body to a temperature between 105.8 F and 107.6 F for approximately an hour. Deep tissue techniques are used to treat internal cancers such as cervical cancer. This procedure involves placing heat-delivery devices around the affected organ or cavity and focusing energy to raise its temperature. Hyperthermia is particularly effective in treating tumor areas low in oxygen and nutrients, whereas radiotherapy is less effective. While deep hyperthermia is well-recognized for enhancing the effectiveness of radiotherapy, it is seldom used as an alternative to cisplatin.

How Can I Prevent Cervical Cancer?

While there’s no definitive way to prevent cervical cancer completely, certain measures can help reduce your risk:

• Cervical screening: Regular cervical screening (Pap test) is the most effective way to detect abnormal changes in cervical cells at an early stage.
• HPV vaccination: Gardasil 9 is the only HPV vaccine available in the United States. It is designed to protect against nine types of HPV, which are responsible for about 90 percent of cervical cancers. Although the HPV vaccine protects against the HPV types most likely to cause cervical cancer, not all types are protected against. Therefore, cervical screening is still necessary, even if you’ve received the HPV vaccine.
  In recent years, there has been a growing trend of parents expressing concerns about the safety of HPV vaccines in general.
• Not smoking
• No promiscuity
• Safer sex: Using condoms can lower your risk of contracting and transmitting HPV, but they don’t offer complete protection.
• Intrauterine device (IUD): Research suggests that women who have used an IUD may have a lower risk of cervical cancer, with the protective effect observed even in those who used an IUD for less than a year and continuing after the IUD was removed. However, there are additional risks associated with using an IUD.